Squamous Cell Carcinoma
This cancer develops from squamous cells lining the outer portion of the cervix. It accounts for most cervical cancers.
Comprehensive evaluation, staging and personalised treatment planning for cervical cancer based on the tumour type, stage, pathology, individual health and treatment goals.
Cervical cancer treatment may involve surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, chemoradiation, targeted treatment or immunotherapy, depending on the individual clinical situation.
Cervical cancer develops in the cervix, the lower part of the uterus that connects the uterus with the vagina. Most cervical cancers are associated with persistent infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV).
HPV infection is common, and most infections are cleared naturally by the immune system. Persistent infection with certain high-risk HPV types can cause changes in cervical cells that may progress through precancerous stages and, if untreated, develop into cervical cancer.
Cervical cancer is therefore different from a single sudden disease process. In many cases, cellular changes develop over time, which is why appropriate cervical screening and treatment of precancerous lesions can help prevent invasive cancer.
A positive HPV test indicates infection with HPV and does not by itself diagnose cervical cancer. Further evaluation depends on the HPV result, screening findings, age, previous results and clinical assessment.
Cervical cancers are classified according to the type of cell in which the cancer begins. The tumour type is important because pathology helps guide diagnosis, staging and treatment planning.
This cancer develops from squamous cells lining the outer portion of the cervix. It accounts for most cervical cancers.
This cancer develops from glandular cells in the endocervix. Its diagnosis and treatment require careful pathological assessment.
Other uncommon tumour types can arise in the cervix. Their treatment may differ from that used for the more common cervical cancers.
Persistent infection with high-risk HPV types is the major cause of cervical cancer. HPV is a very common infection, and most infections do not progress to cancer.
When a high-risk HPV infection persists, it can cause abnormal changes in cervical cells. Some of these changes can become precancerous lesions. Detecting and treating these changes can prevent progression to invasive cervical cancer.
HPV vaccination and appropriate cervical screening are important strategies for reducing the risk of cervical cancer.
Screening is intended to identify precancerous changes or cancer early, even when a person has no symptoms.
Cervical cancer treatment is individualised. The oncology team considers the stage and extent of disease together with pathology, overall health and personal treatment priorities.
The extent of the cancer and whether it has spread beyond the cervix are central to treatment planning.
Squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma and less common tumour types may require different approaches.
The size and local extent of the tumour can influence whether surgery or radiation-based treatment is considered.
Assessment of lymph nodes and disease beyond the cervix can influence treatment strategy.
General health, kidney function, nutrition and other medical factors can affect treatment suitability.
Fertility, quality of life and individual treatment goals may need to be considered before treatment begins.
Depending on the stage and treatment plan, cervical cancer care may involve surgical oncology, medical oncology and radiation oncology. Coordinating these specialities can help determine the appropriate sequence and combination of treatments.
Surgery may be considered for selected early-stage cervical cancers and can include procedures ranging from local excision to hysterectomy depending on the disease.
Medical oncology may be involved in chemotherapy, concurrent chemoradiation, systemic treatment, targeted therapy and selected immunotherapy settings.
Radiation therapy, including external beam radiation and brachytherapy, is an important treatment modality for many cervical cancers depending on stage and clinical circumstances.
Bring your screening, biopsy, imaging or previous treatment reports for a discussion about diagnosis, staging and available treatment options.
Cervical cancer may not cause noticeable symptoms in its early stages. This is one reason regular cervical screening is important. When symptoms develop, abnormal vaginal bleeding, unusual vaginal discharge and pelvic pain can be important warning signs that need medical evaluation.
Vaginal bleeding following sexual intercourse, particularly when it is new or recurrent, should be evaluated rather than assumed to be normal.
Unexpected bleeding or spotting between menstrual periods can have many causes, but persistent or unexplained bleeding warrants medical assessment.
A noticeable change in menstrual bleeding, particularly when it is persistent or unusual for you, should be discussed with a healthcare professional.
Vaginal bleeding after menopause should always be medically assessed, even if the amount of bleeding is small.
A new watery, persistent, blood-stained or unusual vaginal discharge can occur with cervical cancer, although other conditions can also cause discharge.
Persistent pelvic pain or pain during sexual intercourse can have several causes and should be assessed when it is new, recurrent or unexplained.
More advanced cervical cancer can affect nearby organs or other parts of the body. Symptoms depend on where the disease has spread and may vary from person to person.
Difficulty or pain during urination, or blood in the urine, may occur when nearby urinary structures are affected.
Difficult or painful bowel movements or rectal bleeding can occur in some advanced cases.
Persistent backache or abdominal pain may occur depending on the location and extent of disease.
Swelling of one or both legs can occur when disease affects lymphatic drainage or nearby structures.
Persistent tiredness can occur with advanced cancer or as a result of anaemia and other cancer-related effects.
Advanced disease can cause different symptoms depending on which organs or tissues are involved.
Abnormal bleeding, vaginal discharge and pelvic pain are common symptoms with many possible causes, including infections, hormonal changes, fibroids, polyps and other gynaecological conditions.
However, symptoms that are new, persistent, recurrent or unusual for you should not be ignored. A healthcare professional can decide whether examination, cervical screening, colposcopy or other investigations are appropriate.
The presence of a symptom does not establish a cancer diagnosis. Diagnosis requires appropriate clinical assessment and, when indicated, further investigation.
Cervical screening is different from investigating symptoms. Screening is intended for people who do not have symptoms and aims to identify high-risk HPV infection or abnormal cervical changes before invasive cancer develops.
Current WHO guidance places HPV-based testing at the centre of cervical cancer screening programmes. Depending on the healthcare setting, screening strategies may also involve cytology or other approved methods.
An abnormal HPV or cervical screening result does not automatically mean cervical cancer is present.
Further assessment may be required to determine whether there is cervical precancer or invasive cancer.
Consider medical evaluation if you experience any new or unexplained cervical or gynaecological symptoms, particularly if they persist or recur.
Bleeding after sexual intercourse
Unexplained bleeding between periods
Any vaginal bleeding after menopause
Persistent or unusual vaginal discharge
Persistent pelvic pain or pain during sex
A concerning or abnormal cervical screening result
A clinical evaluation can help identify whether further screening, examination or diagnostic testing is appropriate.
Cervical cancer evaluation may begin with routine screening, an abnormal HPV or Pap test, or symptoms such as unexplained vaginal bleeding. Further investigations are used to determine whether there are abnormal cervical cells, precancer or invasive cancer.
Looks for high-risk HPV infection or abnormal cervical cell changes in people who may not have symptoms.
Determines whether abnormal findings represent precancer or invasive cancer, usually through clinical assessment and tissue examination when required.
Determines the extent of confirmed cervical cancer and whether it involves nearby structures, lymph nodes or distant sites.
Cervical screening aims to identify high-risk HPV infection or abnormal cervical changes before invasive cervical cancer develops. WHO currently recommends HPV-based testing as the preferred primary screening approach where appropriate testing programmes are available.
Tests for high-risk types of human papillomavirus associated with cervical precancer and cancer.
Examines cervical cells for abnormal changes. Cytology may be used as part of cervical screening or follow-up depending on the screening strategy.
Visual inspection methods may be used in certain screening programmes and healthcare settings.
Depending on the result and individual circumstances, the next step may be repeat testing, triage, colposcopy, biopsy or treatment of a confirmed precancerous lesion.
Colposcopy is a procedure used to examine the cervix more closely when screening results or clinical findings require further assessment.
A speculum is used to view the cervix. A colposcope provides magnification and light so that areas of abnormal tissue can be identified more clearly.
When an abnormal area is identified, a biopsy may be taken so that the tissue can be examined by a pathologist.
The procedure helps identify suspicious areas. Histological examination of tissue is used when a tissue diagnosis is required.
When cancer or significant precancer is suspected, a tissue sample can provide important information about the cells and their characteristics.
A small sample of tissue is removed from an area of the cervix that appears abnormal.
Tissue or cells can be collected from the cervical canal when assessment of this area is required.
A wire loop can be used to remove abnormal tissue from the cervix. It may be used to treat precancer and in selected diagnostic situations.
A cone-shaped section of cervical tissue is removed for detailed examination and may also be therapeutic for selected precancerous or early-stage conditions.
Pathology helps establish whether abnormal cells represent precancer or invasive cancer and identifies the tumour type. Additional pathological information can help the oncology team plan treatment.
The next step depends on the exact screening result, previous screening history, age, risk factors and clinical findings.
HPV or cervical-cell findings require appropriate follow-up.
Colposcopy and other assessment may be recommended.
Suspicious tissue may be sampled for pathological assessment.
The findings determine whether there is precancer or invasive cervical cancer.
Once invasive cervical cancer has been confirmed, staging determines how far the cancer has spread. Cervical cancer is commonly staged using the FIGO staging system.
The cancer is confined to the cervix, with further subdivisions based on tumour characteristics and extent.
The cancer has extended beyond the uterus but has not reached the pelvic wall or lower third of the vagina as defined by staging criteria.
Disease may involve the pelvic wall, lower vagina, urinary structures or regional lymph nodes, depending on the specific stage.
The cancer has extended to nearby organs or distant sites, according to the specific stage definition.
Imaging helps the oncology team understand the local extent of the tumour, assess lymph nodes and look for disease outside the cervix. The investigations selected depend on the clinical situation.
Bring your HPV, Pap, colposcopy, biopsy and imaging reports for a discussion about the diagnosis and next steps.
Cervical cancer treatment is not the same for every patient. The treatment approach depends on the stage of the cancer, tumour size and location, lymph-node involvement, tumour characteristics, previous treatment, overall health and, where relevant, fertility and personal preferences.
Depending on the situation, treatment may involve surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted treatment or a combination of these approaches.
Some very early cervical cancers can be treated with a local procedure such as conisation. Depending on the depth of invasion, tumour characteristics and fertility plans, other patients may require surgery such as hysterectomy or a fertility-sparing procedure.
Depending on tumour size, location and other risk factors, treatment may involve radical surgery with lymph-node assessment or chemoradiation using external-beam radiation and brachytherapy.
For many stage IIB, stage III and selected stage IVA cancers, chemoradiation is an important treatment approach. Radiation usually combines external-beam radiation with internal radiation (brachytherapy), with chemotherapy given concurrently when appropriate.
When cervical cancer has spread to distant organs or has returned after treatment, management depends on where the cancer has spread, previous treatment, tumour biomarkers and the person's overall health.
A patient may receive one treatment or a combination of treatments. The sequence is planned around the stage and the goal of treatment.
Surgery may be used for selected early-stage cervical cancers. The procedure depends on tumour size, depth of invasion, location, lymph-node status and fertility considerations.
Radiation therapy is an important part of treatment for many locally advanced cervical cancers. It may be delivered externally and internally through brachytherapy.
Chemotherapy may be given together with radiation for locally advanced disease or as systemic treatment for recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer.
Immunotherapy may be considered in specific cervical cancer settings. Eligibility can depend on the stage, treatment setting and tumour biomarkers such as PD-L1.
Certain targeted medicines may be incorporated into treatment for selected patients with recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer. The choice depends on the individual clinical situation.
Supportive care can be provided alongside cancer treatment to help manage pain, fatigue, nutrition, treatment-related side effects and other physical or emotional concerns.
Brachytherapy is a form of internal radiation therapy in which the radiation source is positioned close to the cervical tumour. It is commonly used as part of definitive radiation treatment for many locally advanced cervical cancers, together with external-beam radiation.
The exact technique and schedule depend on the tumour, anatomy, treatment response and radiation plan.
Tumour factors
Type, size, location and extent of local invasion.
Lymph nodes & spread
Whether cancer has reached regional lymph nodes or distant organs.
Previous treatment
Especially important when planning treatment for recurrent disease.
Individual priorities
Overall health, fertility considerations and personal treatment goals.
A personalised consultation can help you understand your diagnosis, stage, treatment options and the purpose of each recommended treatment.
Surgery is mainly used for selected early-stage cervical cancers. The type and extent of surgery depend on the tumour's size, depth of invasion, location, lymph-node status, risk factors and the patient's individual treatment goals.
Before recommending an operation, the cancer team considers several features of the disease and the patient's circumstances.
The stage and size of the cervical tumour help determine whether a local procedure, hysterectomy, fertility-sparing surgery or another treatment approach is appropriate.
Assessment of nearby lymph nodes may form part of surgical staging because lymph-node involvement can influence subsequent treatment.
For selected patients who wish to preserve the possibility of future pregnancy, fertility-sparing options may be considered when medically appropriate.
Different procedures remove different amounts of tissue. The operation is selected according to the extent and characteristics of the cancer.
Conisation removes a cone-shaped section of tissue from the cervix and cervical canal. It can be used for diagnosis and, in selected very early cancers, may remove the cancer completely.
A simple hysterectomy removes the uterus and cervix. It may be appropriate for carefully selected low-risk, early-stage cervical cancers following specialist assessment.
Radical hysterectomy removes the uterus and cervix along with surrounding tissues and part of the upper vagina. Nearby lymph nodes may also be assessed or removed.
Radical trachelectomy removes the cervix, nearby tissue and upper part of the vagina while preserving the uterus. It may provide a fertility-sparing option for carefully selected patients with early-stage disease.
A sentinel lymph-node biopsy identifies and removes the first lymph node or nodes most likely to receive drainage from the tumour. The tissue is then examined by a pathologist.
Pelvic exenteration is a highly extensive operation that may be considered in very selected patients with recurrent or persistent pelvic cancer when the disease remains confined to the pelvis and complete surgical removal is considered possible.
Cervical cancer can spread through the lymphatic system. During appropriate surgical procedures, lymph nodes may therefore be assessed to determine whether cancer cells are present.
The pathology findings can provide important information for determining whether additional treatment is needed after surgery.
In selected patients with early-stage cervical cancer, fertility- sparing treatment may be possible. This should be discussed before treatment because some surgeries and radiation treatments can affect fertility.
Recovery varies according to the procedure performed, the person's general health and whether additional cancer treatment is required. Your surgical team will provide individual instructions for wound care, activity, follow-up and warning symptoms.
A specialist consultation can help you understand whether surgery is appropriate, which procedure may be considered and how treatment could affect fertility, recovery and the need for additional therapy.
Book a ConsultationMedical and radiation treatments play an important role in cervical cancer care. Depending on the stage and treatment goal, a patient may receive radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy or a combination of these treatments.
The treatment sequence is individualised according to the tumour, stage, lymph-node involvement, previous treatment, overall health and other relevant clinical factors.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to damage cancer cells. It can be used as a definitive treatment for many cervical cancers, after surgery in selected situations, or to control symptoms in advanced disease.
For many locally advanced cervical cancers, radiation is combined with chemotherapy. Treatment commonly includes both external-beam radiation and brachytherapy.
Radiation is delivered from a machine outside the body to the pelvis and other areas identified in the treatment plan.
A radiation source is placed in or near the tumour using an applicator. It allows radiation to be delivered directly to the treatment area.
Imaging and treatment planning help the radiation team define the tumour and surrounding organs and deliver treatment as accurately as possible.
Brachytherapy is a form of internal radiation therapy in which a radiation source is placed inside the body, in or close to the cancer.
In cervical cancer, brachytherapy can be an important component of definitive radiation treatment, particularly for locally advanced disease.
Chemotherapy uses medicines that circulate through the body and can destroy cancer cells or prevent them from multiplying.
For many patients receiving radiation for locally advanced cervical cancer, chemotherapy may be given at the same time as radiation. This approach can help radiation work more effectively against the cancer.
For recurrent or metastatic disease, chemotherapy may be used as a systemic treatment, sometimes together with immunotherapy or targeted therapy depending on the clinical situation.
Different medicines and combinations may be used depending on the treatment setting, previous therapy, overall health and other individual factors.
Immunotherapy helps the immune system recognise and attack cancer cells. Certain immunotherapy medicines are used in specific cervical cancer treatment settings.
Eligibility may depend on the stage, whether the cancer is newly diagnosed or recurrent, previous treatment and biomarker findings such as PD-L1 expression.
Pembrolizumab is an immune checkpoint inhibitor used in selected cervical cancer settings. The appropriate use depends on the individual treatment situation and eligibility criteria.
Targeted medicines are designed to interfere with specific biological pathways involved in cancer growth or spread. They may be considered in selected recurrent or metastatic cervical cancers.
A targeted medicine that may be combined with systemic treatment for selected patients with advanced or recurrent cervical cancer.
An antibody-drug conjugate used in specific treatment settings for cervical cancer, particularly after previous systemic treatment.
Treatment selection depends on disease status, previous treatment, eligibility criteria and the potential benefits and risks for the individual patient.
Treatment for recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer depends on where the cancer has returned or spread, previous treatment, symptoms, biomarkers and whether local treatment is possible.
Surgery or radiation-based treatment may be considered for carefully selected patients when recurrence is confined to a treatable area.
Systemic treatment may be used when cancer has spread to distant organs or cannot be treated with curative local therapy.
Radiation, medicines and supportive care may help control pain, bleeding or other symptoms and support quality of life.
Clinical trials may provide access to new treatment approaches when an appropriate study is available and eligibility criteria are met.
Cancer treatment can cause side effects, but not everyone experiences the same effects or severity. Your oncology team can monitor symptoms and provide supportive treatment throughout therapy.
Cervical cancer treatment is planned by considering the disease as a whole rather than selecting a treatment from the stage alone.
Speak with a multidisciplinary oncology team to understand the purpose of each treatment, possible alternatives and what to expect during your cancer care journey.
Cervical cancer treatment is a process rather than a single procedure. Your care team first confirms the diagnosis and stage, then discusses the treatment options, expected benefits, possible side effects and the next steps that are appropriate for you.
Treatment may involve one specialist or several specialists working together depending on the stage and treatment plan.
Screening results, clinical examination, colposcopy, biopsy and pathology help establish whether cervical cancer is present and identify the tumour type.
Imaging, pathology and other investigations help determine the extent of disease and whether nearby lymph nodes or distant organs are involved.
The oncology team considers the stage, tumour characteristics, overall health, fertility considerations and individual priorities before recommending a treatment approach.
Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted treatment or combinations of these approaches.
Your team monitors treatment response, side effects, recovery and any symptoms that may require further evaluation.
Follow-up care helps monitor for recurrence, manage long-term or late treatment effects and support your health after treatment.
Cervical cancer can require different forms of treatment. Depending on the diagnosis and stage, surgical, medical and radiation oncology expertise may be brought together to develop and coordinate the care plan.
Surgical evaluation may be relevant when surgery is being considered, particularly for selected early-stage cervical cancers or specific recurrent disease situations.
View Doctor Profile →Medical oncology focuses on systemic cancer treatments such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy and selected targeted treatments, depending on the individual diagnosis and treatment setting.
View Doctor Profile →Radiation oncology is central to planning external-beam radiation and brachytherapy when radiation forms part of the cervical cancer treatment plan.
View Doctor Profile →Two people with cervical cancer may not receive exactly the same treatment. The cancer care team considers the complete clinical picture before recommending treatment.
A second opinion can help you better understand your diagnosis and proposed treatment, particularly when the treatment involves major surgery, chemoradiation or several possible approaches.
It can also help clarify pathology, staging, treatment goals, potential alternatives and questions about fertility or long-term effects.
Review the diagnosis
Confirm the pathology and stage information available.
Understand your options
Ask why a particular treatment has been recommended.
Discuss alternatives
Understand whether other treatment approaches may be appropriate.
Plan the next step
Understand what happens before, during and after treatment.
Having your previous medical records available can help the oncology team understand your diagnosis and avoid unnecessary repetition of investigations.
Finishing active treatment does not mean that medical care stops. Follow-up visits help assess recovery, monitor for recurrence and identify long-term or late effects of treatment.
Your follow-up schedule will be individualised according to your cancer, treatment history and overall health.
Bring your reports and previous treatment records for a specialist consultation focused on understanding your diagnosis, treatment options and next steps.
Cervical cancer treatment is a process rather than a single procedure. Your care team first confirms the diagnosis and stage, then discusses the treatment options, expected benefits, possible side effects and the next steps that are appropriate for you.
Treatment may involve one specialist or several specialists working together depending on the stage and treatment plan.
Screening results, clinical examination, colposcopy, biopsy and pathology help establish whether cervical cancer is present and identify the tumour type.
Imaging, pathology and other investigations help determine the extent of disease and whether nearby lymph nodes or distant organs are involved.
The oncology team considers the stage, tumour characteristics, overall health, fertility considerations and individual priorities before recommending a treatment approach.
Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted treatment or combinations of these approaches.
Your team monitors treatment response, side effects, recovery and any symptoms that may require further evaluation.
Follow-up care helps monitor for recurrence, manage long-term or late treatment effects and support your health after treatment.
Cervical cancer can require different forms of treatment. Depending on the diagnosis and stage, surgical, medical and radiation oncology expertise may be brought together to develop and coordinate the care plan.
Surgical evaluation may be relevant when surgery is being considered, particularly for selected early-stage cervical cancers or specific recurrent disease situations.
View Doctor Profile →Medical oncology focuses on systemic cancer treatments such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy and selected targeted treatments, depending on the individual diagnosis and treatment setting.
View Doctor Profile →Radiation oncology is central to planning external-beam radiation and brachytherapy when radiation forms part of the cervical cancer treatment plan.
View Doctor Profile →Two people with cervical cancer may not receive exactly the same treatment. The cancer care team considers the complete clinical picture before recommending treatment.
A second opinion can help you better understand your diagnosis and proposed treatment, particularly when the treatment involves major surgery, chemoradiation or several possible approaches.
It can also help clarify pathology, staging, treatment goals, potential alternatives and questions about fertility or long-term effects.
Review the diagnosis
Confirm the pathology and stage information available.
Understand your options
Ask why a particular treatment has been recommended.
Discuss alternatives
Understand whether other treatment approaches may be appropriate.
Plan the next step
Understand what happens before, during and after treatment.
Having your previous medical records available can help the oncology team understand your diagnosis and avoid unnecessary repetition of investigations.
Finishing active treatment does not mean that medical care stops. Follow-up visits help assess recovery, monitor for recurrence and identify long-term or late effects of treatment.
Your follow-up schedule will be individualised according to your cancer, treatment history and overall health.
Bring your reports and previous treatment records for a specialist consultation focused on understanding your diagnosis, treatment options and next steps.
Find answers to common questions about cervical cancer symptoms, diagnosis, staging, surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, fertility and follow-up care.
Cervical cancer is a cancer that develops in the cervix, the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. Most cervical cancers are associated with persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV).
The main types include squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. Treatment depends on the type and stage of the cancer.
Possible symptoms include vaginal bleeding after sex, bleeding between periods, heavier or longer periods, bleeding after menopause, unusual vaginal discharge and pelvic pain.
Advanced disease may cause symptoms such as back or abdominal pain, leg swelling, urinary or bowel problems and fatigue. These symptoms can also occur with conditions other than cervical cancer and should be evaluated by a healthcare professional.
No. HPV infection is very common, and most HPV infections clear naturally. Persistent infection with high-risk HPV can cause cervical cell changes that may eventually develop into cancer.
An HPV-positive screening result does not by itself mean that cervical cancer is present. Further assessment may be recommended depending on the screening result and clinical circumstances.
Screening is performed to identify people who may have cervical precancer or who need further evaluation. HPV testing and cervical cytology (Pap testing) are examples of screening approaches.
Diagnosis involves investigating an abnormal screening result or symptoms. Colposcopy and biopsy may be used to determine whether cancer is actually present.
No. An abnormal cervical screening result does not automatically mean that cancer is present. Many abnormal results are related to HPV infection or cervical cell changes that are not invasive cancer.
Depending on the result, your doctor may recommend repeat testing, colposcopy, biopsy or another form of evaluation.
Cervical cancer is confirmed through diagnostic evaluation and examination of tissue by a pathologist. Colposcopy may be used to examine abnormal areas of the cervix, and a biopsy may be taken for pathological examination.
Additional tests and imaging may then be used to determine the extent of the disease and help plan treatment.
Staging may involve clinical examination, pathology and imaging. Depending on the individual situation, investigations may include MRI, CT, PET-CT or other appropriate tests.
The purpose is to determine the extent of the cancer and whether nearby lymph nodes or distant organs are involved.
Cervical cancer is staged according to how far the cancer has spread. Broadly, stage I is limited to the cervix; stage II extends beyond the cervix but not to the pelvic wall or lower third of the vagina; stage III involves more extensive local or regional disease; and stage IV includes spread to nearby organs or distant parts of the body.
The detailed FIGO staging system contains additional subcategories, and the exact stage is determined by the oncology team using the clinical, pathological and imaging information available.
No. Surgery is mainly used for selected early-stage cervical cancers. Depending on the stage and tumour characteristics, treatment may instead involve radiation therapy with chemotherapy, systemic treatment or a combination of approaches.
The recommended treatment depends on the individual diagnosis and treatment goals.
Depending on the situation, surgical procedures may include conisation, hysterectomy, radical hysterectomy, radical trachelectomy and lymph-node assessment.
More extensive procedures are reserved for carefully selected situations, including some cases of recurrent disease.
Fertility-sparing treatment may be possible for carefully selected patients with early-stage cervical cancer. Options can include conisation or radical trachelectomy in appropriate situations.
Radiation and some surgical treatments can affect fertility. Anyone concerned about future pregnancy should discuss fertility preservation with the cancer team before treatment begins.
Radiation therapy is an important treatment for many locally advanced cervical cancers. It may also be used after surgery in selected situations or to control specific symptoms or areas of disease.
Definitive radiation treatment commonly combines external-beam radiation with brachytherapy.
Brachytherapy is a form of internal radiation therapy in which a radiation source is positioned in or close to the tumour using an applicator.
It is commonly incorporated into definitive radiation treatment for many locally advanced cervical cancers.
Yes. Chemotherapy may be given at the same time as radiation for many locally advanced cervical cancers. It can also be used as systemic treatment for recurrent or metastatic disease.
The medicines and treatment schedule depend on the individual treatment setting, previous therapy and overall health.
Yes. Immunotherapy is used in selected cervical cancer treatment settings. Eligibility depends on factors such as the stage, whether the disease is newly diagnosed or recurrent, previous treatment and relevant biomarkers.
Your oncologist can determine whether immunotherapy is appropriate for your specific situation.
Cervical cancer can recur after treatment. Follow-up appointments are therefore an important part of care after active treatment.
New or persistent symptoms such as unusual vaginal bleeding or discharge, abdominal or back pain, leg swelling, urinary or bowel changes, cough or unexplained fatigue should be discussed with your doctor.
Follow-up schedules vary according to the individual situation. NCI notes that many guidelines recommend follow-up every 3 to 4 months during the first 2 years and then every 6 months.
Follow-up includes assessment of symptoms, physical examination and evaluation of treatment-related effects. Additional tests or imaging may be performed when clinically indicated.
A second opinion can be useful when you want to better understand the diagnosis, pathology, stage or proposed treatment. It may be particularly helpful when major surgery, chemoradiation or several treatment approaches are being considered.
Bring your pathology reports, scan reports and images, previous treatment records and relevant blood test results to the consultation.
Bring your reports and previous treatment records for a specialist consultation to understand your diagnosis, stage and available treatment options.
The information on this page is provided for general educational purposes and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Cervical cancer treatment varies from person to person. A qualified oncology team should review your pathology, imaging, stage, medical history and individual circumstances before recommending treatment.
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